This exclusion has several forms: First, women have had very little opportunity, until very recently, to engage in systematic philosophical study; second, women and gender relations have received very little philosophical attention from the male authors who dominate the philosophical canon; and third, when women are discussed in the canonical literature, they are almost with exception represented as intellectually and morally inferior to men.

They were wrong in thinking philosophy should begin with an analysis of consciousness and should show how conscious human beings apply concepts to the data of sensation in order to produce phenomenalistic world pictures that are distinguished from things as they are. The third is the principle of substitutivity, according to which if two expressions have the same meaning, then substitution of one for the other in a third The principle is not committed to a specific conception of syntax and semantics, which is why it can be employed in debates between proponents of different conceptions (see, by way of comparison, Partee 1984).

It is no accident that appeals to equality are ubiquitous. The traditional psychologist declares, “I propose to study consciousness by introspection”; the behaviorist says, “I do not; I propose to study behavior by objective methods.” The issue is almost as simple as that. Similarly, if the use of metaphorical language in knowledge domains such as science is not reducible to literal language, then we need metaphor in order to understand and explain what is knowable.

Nevertheless, the mystical experiences of an agnostic are surely bound to differ in important respects from those of a Christian, a Buddhist, or a Muslim. Perhaps for this reason Priestley and Shelburne parted amicably in 1780, when Priestley, refusing Shelburne’s offer of a post in Ireland, took up residence in Birmingham. Hermeneutiko lexiko tes Indikes philosophias kai tou Gionka. See also Aesthetics, History of; Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich; Cybernetics; Derrida, Jacques; Florenskii, Pavel Aleksandrovich; Freud, Sigmund; Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Hegelianism; Historicism; Information Theory; Kant, Immanuel; Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm; Marxist Philosophy; Monad and Monadology; Neo-Kantianism; Platonism and the Platonic Tradition; Radishchev, Aleksandr Nikolaevich; Rousseau, Jean-Jacques; Russian Philosophy; Structuralism and Post-structuralism.

It might seem that what matters is whether your action causes the death or whether it is caused by something or someone else. Augustine used the traditional language of Christian theology to state his view of political society. From this, however, it does not follow that causation is a “simple” relation like, for example, coexistence that can be given in a single experience. Contemporary examples can be found in the literature on egalitarianism or on measures of freedom.

In 1687 he turned up at Glasgow University and in 1690 was awarded an MA at Edinburgh University. I, Ch. 1) The relationship of the two is more fully explained in the introduction: The generalizations of arithmetical algebra are generalizations of reasoning not of form. … Symbolical algebra adopts the rules of arithmetical algebra, but removes altogether their restrictions. … It is this adoption of the rules of the operations of arithmetical algebra as the rules for performing the operations which bear the same names in symbolical algebra, which secures the absolute identity of the results in the two sciences so far as they exist in common. … This principle, in my former Treatise on Algebra, I denominated the “principle of the permanence of equivalent forms.” Peacock expressed his conviction that the convention by which such permanence had been commonly assumed had both delayed the emergence of his symbolical algebra as a science in its own right and resulted in consequent confusion and false reasoning such as Cauchy had complained of.

Koelling. “Relation of Cue to Consequence in Avoidance Learning.” Science 4 (1966): 123–124. Under another view, held by some Mima¶sakas, there are no sentences qua distinct meaningful units. Accordingly the influence of the human mind is limited to its own states, and the mind is not the master of—that is, the true cause of movements in—the body. Psychologically, the flash reveals to man his choices. The active intellect is not personalized, however, because it is Aristotelian form, and each such form is a species and never an individual.

To a considerable degree, the plausibility of the proposal depends on the conception of philosophy that is assumed within it; so the debate is ultimately driven onto the terrain of metaphilosophy. WITTGENSTEIN, LUDWIG [ADDENDUM 2] ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY 820 • 2 n d e d i t i o n eophil_W 10/28/05 3:37 PM Page 820 Bi bl i o g r aphy WORKS BY LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN Philosophical Investigations. 3rd ed.

SECONDARY WORKS “Selected Bibliography.” Valéry Studies, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. According to him, powerlessness is “the expectancy or probability held by the individ- 122 • ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY 2nd edition ALIENATION ual that his own behavior cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks”; meaninglessness results “when the individual is unclear as to what he ought to believe—when the individual’s minimal standards for clarity in decision-making are not met”; normlessness is the characteristic of a situation “in which there is a high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviors are required to achieve given goals”; isolation is characteristic of those who “assign low reward value to goals or beliefs that are typically highly valued in the given society”; and self-estrangement is “the degree of dependence of the given behavior upon anticipated future rewards, that is upon rewards that lie outside the activity itself ” (“On the Meaning of Alienation,” pp. 786, 788, 789, 790).

This initial distinction was accompa- nied by a distinction between four functions of personal- ity—sensation, thinking, feeling, and intuition. A proCatholic bias is evident in the articles on theological subjects. Such items are often listed at the end of an article or book in a section marked " Bibliography " or "References". The EOLSS On-line is always with you wherever you are and you can enter its enormous world of knowledge with the touch of a button and move through it with ease.